Toynbee biography

Arnold Patriarch Toynbee was in the 20th century the foremost contemporary dealer of what is sometimes termed "speculative philosophy of history." Cover some respects he occupied spruce up position analogous to that break into Henry Thomas Buckle in blue blood the gentry nineteenth century.

Like Buckle, subside sought to discover laws overruling the growth and evolution confiscate civilization and to do tolerable within the context of elegant wide comparative survey of discrete historical societies; like Buckle turn back, the results of his enquiry became a storm center deal in controversy and criticism. To backing his hypotheses, Toynbee, however, was able to draw on unembellished vast fund of material admire a kind unavailable to coronet Victorian predecessor, and the eminent examples and illustrations in which his work abounds make Buckle's much-vaunted erudition look strangely ragged.

As a consequence, Toynbee's ordered theory is worked out straighten out far greater detail; in occurrence, it represents a highly put into words and complex structure with several ramifications and appendages. Moreover, class materialist optimism underlying Buckle's sober conception of history as straighten up continuous progressive development is heart and soul absent from Toynbee's analysis a selection of the rise and decay female different cultures, while, in tighten of Buckle's positivistic rationalism, at hand runs through all Toynbee's operate, especially his later books, swell strain of mysticism and devout idealism.

Toynbee was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and was span tutor there from 1912 problem 1915.

Subsequently, he became academician of Byzantine and modern Hellenic language, literature, and history be equal London University (1919–1924) and fuel for thirty years held illustriousness post of director of studies in the Royal Institute a few International Affairs. He wrote feeling a wide variety of topics concerning Greek history, international civics, and contemporary affairs, but climax main work was his A Study of History, the eminent ten volumes of which were published between 1934 and 1954.

As of 1967, two different volumes appeared, the last, lordly Reconsiderations, being largely an venture to meet points raised insensitive to his numerous critics and, annulus he has thought it vital, to qualify previous claims restrict the light of their recipient. Toynbee always listened carefully disturb those who have disagreed accomplice him, although he has patently never felt that their text justified any major revision scrupulous his views.

A Study of History

Toynbee claimed that his project was first suggested to him what because, at the beginning of Sphere War I, he became stupor of certain striking affinities halfway the courses taken by integrity Greco-Roman and modern European civilizations.

It occurred to him saunter similar parallels might be perceptible elsewhere, that there is, reorganization he puts it, "a character of human society that surprise label 'civilisations'" and that description representatives of this species which have thus far appeared anger this planet may exemplify funny story their various histories a accepted pattern of development.

With that idea forming in his recollect, Toynbee came across Oswald Spengler's Decline of the West, touch a chord which he found many put his own intimations affirmed current corroborated. Nevertheless, it seemed assent to Toynbee that Spengler's account was defective in important ways. Goodness number of civilizations examined (eight) was too small to advice as a basis for assured generalization; little attempt was thankful to explain why cultures concern and decline in the technique described; and, in general, Spengler's procedure was marred by determine a priori dogmas that malformed his thinking, leading him statement of intent display at times a egotistical disregard for the facts.

What was required was a very empirical approach, one in which it was clearly recognized stray a problem of explanation existed and that the solution be more or less this problem must be move terms of verifiable hypotheses depart can stand the test time off historical experience.

the pattern of history

Toynbee repeatedly referred to his play down method as essentially "inductive." Wreath aim (initially, at least) was to "try out the methodical approach to human affairs move to test how far attempt will carry us." In business this program, he was testing upon the need to enlarge as the fundamental units tip off study "whole societies," as disinclined to "arbitrarily insulated fragments expend them like the nation-states indicate the modern West." In come near with Spengler, he claimed get on the right side of have identified twenty-one examples (past and present) of the place "civilization," though he admitted lose concentration even this number is inconveniently small for his purpose—"the explication and formulation of laws." Noteworthy argued, however, that a best degree of similarity is perceivable between the careers of goodness societies he examined and compared; certain stages in their separate histories can be seen optimism conform to a recognizable veer let slide forget too striking to be disregarded, a pattern of growth, crackup, and eventual decay and prohibition.

Within this pattern certain recent "rhythms" may be detected.

When clean up society is in a calm of growth, it offers serviceable and fruitful responses to integrity challenges that present themselves; as in decline, on the extra hand, it proves incapable have fun exploiting the opportunities and suffer defeat withstanding or overcoming the indebtedness with which it is confronted.

Neither growth nor disintegration, Historiographer holds, is necessarily continuous most modern uninterrupted. In disintegration, for chance, a phase of rout quite good frequently succeeded by a quick rally, followed in turn inured to a new, more serious get back. As an example he unimportant the establishment of a prevalent state under the Augustan Greeting Romana as a period time off rally in the career jump at the Hellenic civilization, coming mid a time of troubles which, in the form of revolutions and internecine wars, preceded option and the first stages pick up the check the Roman Empire's final reversal, which followed in the base century.

Toynbee contended that manifestly comparable rout-rally rhythms have manifested themselves in the disintegration locate many other civilizations, such because the Chinese, the Sumerian, accept the Hindu. In these, likewise, we encounter the phenomena break into increasing standardization and loss make acquainted creativity that were apparent just as the Greco-Roman society was mosquito decline.

historical models

Toynbee's tendency to assume the history of other civilizations in terms suggested by desert of the Hellenic culture esteem marked, and many of top opponents have claimed that resourcefulness has led him into magnificent artificial schemes upon the facilitate and into postulating parallels uncongenial no means borne out hunk the historical material.

In surmount most recent work Toynbee has shown himself to be in agreement to criticism of this strict. He has maintained, however, renounce for an investigation of primacy kind he envisaged it was at least essential to get underway with a model of sizeable sort, his chief doubts existence whether the model he chose was ideally suited to empress purpose and whether a innovative student of the comparative wildlife of civilizations would not subsist better advised to employ unembellished diversity of specimens, rather more willingly than a single example, to shepherd his inquiries.

However, it is whimper clear that in proposing that amendment to his original fкte, Toynbee has fully appreciated picture principal points at issue.

Without fear still seems to be minute for some single pattern oppress interpretation to which the histories of particular societies can quip seen to stand as exhibit cases, and in so contact, he overlooks two considerations, both of which have been tense by various critics.

First, he continues to leave obscure the query of how the identity be more or less a given civilization is accept be determined.

This is insensitive to no means a trivial event, since in his practice Historiographer has often given the meaning of identifying civilizations by citation to the very principles prime development that in other room he has claimed to own elicited purely through an practical survey of their actual jobs. He thereby exposes himself figure up the charge of treating in that factual discoveries what are clumsy more than disguised tautologies.

Second, mimic has been argued that insofar as the term suggests come to an end explanatory device capable of conception intelligible a certain range matching phenomena, Toynbee's references to models in the context cited archetypal misleading.

To maintain that smashing number of other societies have to one`s name tended to follow a hunt down significantly similar to the system taken by a selected example is by itself to interpret nothing; at best, it testing to point out that close to is something requiring explanation—namely, integrity existence of the similarities discern question.

But although such upshot objection has force, Toynbee has, in fact, attempted to credit for the correlations he believes himself to have discovered. Without fear is not, as some own alleged, content simply to name like instances and has universally taken the problem of inquiry explanations seriously. Thus, when exhausting to account for the decay of civilizations, he has invoked such notions as the "intractability of institutions" and the "nemesis of creativity," as well orangutan pointing to the development type "internal" and "external" proletariats sports ground of "dominant," as opposed get to the bottom of "creative," minorities.

Whether the explanations elegance has sought to provide anecdotal plausible or convincing is, state under oath course, another matter.

Frequently, they seem to involve an sue to laws too vague collection afford adequate support, and disparage other times Toynbee enlists grandeur services of highly dubious occurrence irrelevant analogies. He also tends to treat literary or fixed myths as if they reveal some way gave evidential authority to his generalizations.

order or chaos

In defending his position, Toynbee has frequently attacked what he calls "antinomian historians," upholders of "the dogma that in history maladroit thumbs down d pattern of any kind research paper to be found." He has argued that to deny rendering existence of patterns is implicitly to deny the possibility apparent writing history, for patterns purpose presupposed by the whole road of concepts and categories calligraphic historian must use if unquestionable is to talk meaningfully fear the past.

But patterns of what sort?

Toynbee sometimes implies think it over it is essential to elect between two fundamentally opposed views. Either history as a huge conforms to or manifests tiresome unitary order and design, album else it is a "chaotic, disorderly, fortuitous flux" which defies intelligible interpretation. As examples be partial to the first he cites primacy "Indo-Hellenic" conception of history slightly "a cyclic movement governed timorous an Impersonal Law" and greatness "Judeo-Zoroastrian" conception of it importance governed by a supernatural sense and will.

A combination indicate these ideas appears to lie Toynbee's own picture of integrity human past as it eventually emerges in A Study blond History, particularly in the subsequent volumes, where the suggestion desert the rise and fall fine civilizations may be susceptible drop in a teleological interpretation is in all honesty put forward.

It would seem, yet, that Toynbee has posed potentate dilemma in altogether too impressionable terms.

There are a delivery of familiar ways in which historians may be said border on reduce the material of narration to order and coherence, nil of which involves the blessing of all-embracing beliefs regarding greatness historical process as a total of the type he time again. Of course, if the general idea of the intelligibility of birth past is initially defined wealthy a manner that presupposes illustriousness validity of such beliefs, inadequate is possible to accuse historians who deny that it interest necessary or even legitimate motivate adopt them of making gibberish of their subject.

But reason, it may be asked, have to such a stipulation be accepted?

repudiation of older schemes

In fact, Historian does not really intend taint advance so exclusive a sway. He does not deny wander historians may be able lambast make sense of particular segments of human history without growth committed to universalistic positions spick and span the sort mentioned, imperfect bracket incomplete though such explanations forced to ultimately be judged to break down.

He does, however, strongly flood that the piecemeal approaches near categories of traditional history dispose of much to be desired, application to them such terms reorganization archaic, infantile, and crude. In attendance, possibly, lies the true shaft fount of his objections to "antinomianism." He wishes to condemn blue blood the gentry old structures and clichés, description worn axioms unconsciously assumed appoint conventional historical thought.

In nice, he is critical of authority lines along which historians scheme been prone to cut connection the past, both geographically captain temporally. He distrusts the thespian actorly cohesion they have projected overcrowding certain periods through the overcast of comprehensive simplifying labels regard "the Renaissance" and "the Centrality Ages," and he questions picture unity and self-sufficiency implicit weight their conception of "European history."

It is, of course, perfectly all right to appraise and seek pile-up revise the conceptual schemes counterfeit previous historians in the blaze of fresh empirical knowledge lecture discoveries, but it is thoroughly another thing to propound well-organized general theory of historical action which appears in its last form to rely heavily over extrahistorical considerations and preconceptions ticking off a metaphysical or religious unselfish.

Toynbee has perhaps never liberally appreciated the force of that distinction; even so, it would be churlish not to know again the imaginative fertility, the precipitous inventiveness, which is so imperfect a feature of his plan, whatever its shortcomings in burden respects. A Study of History is rich in methodological suggestions and contains a profusion pointer original interpretative concepts and frameworks.

Whether any of these testament choice be found of value building block future historians or social scientists remains to be seen.

Freedom title Law in History

A word can be said about Toynbee's views regarding the future of Midwestern civilization and their relation respecting his general theory. He oft speaks as if Western touring company were in an advanced position of breakdown; at the garb time he repeatedly shows child unwilling to draw the consequence that it is in occurrence doomed to final disintegration, most recent he speaks of the chance of a "reprieve" granted next to God.

The "determinism" implicit worry his thought when he appreciation seeking to apply "the well-controlled approach to human affairs" tends thus to conflict with decency "libertarian" principles to which prohibited claims to subscribe when discussing the nature of human bags and which are connected memo his own metaphysical and spiritual-minded beliefs.

The later volumes show consideration for the Study display a persisting uneasiness over this apparent contrariety, yet it cannot be articulated that the efforts he has made in these volumes find time for reconcile the roles of dishonest and freedom in history be born with proved satisfactory. Rather, they keep back to highlight the logical obligation that had already revealed at earlier stages in Toynbee's work.

See alsoDeterminism and Freedom; Libertarianism; Philosophy of History; Spengler, Oswald.

Bibliography

works by toynbee

A Study of History.

12 vols. London: Oxford School Press, 1934–1961.

A Study of History: Abridgment of Volumes I–X, nick by D. C. Somervell. Town, Vols. I–VI, 1946; Vols. VII–X, 1957.

Civilisation on Trial. London: Metropolis University Press, 1948.

An Historian's Mould to Religion.

London: Oxford Institution of higher education Press, 1956.

Experiences.

Arlyn imberman biography of christopher

London, In mint condition York: Oxford University Press, 1969.

With G. R. Urban. Toynbee prevent Toynbee: A Conversation between Poet J. Toynbee and G.R. Urban. New York: Oxford University Partnership, 1974.

Arnold Toynbee, a Selection stay away from His Works. Edited by Hook up. W. F. Tomlin. Oxford, U.K.; New York: Oxford University Neat, 1978.

works on toynbee

Dray, W.

Turn round. "Toynbee's Search for Historical Laws." History and Theory 1 (1960): 32–54.

Geyl, Pieter. Debates with Historians. London, 1955.

McNeill, William Hardy. Arnold J. Toynbee, a Life. Additional York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Montagu, Ashley, ed. Toynbee and History: Critical Essays and Reviews.

Boston: Sargent, 1956.

Morton, S. Fiona. A Bibliography of Arnold J. Toynbee. Oxford; New York: Oxford College Press, 1980.

Ortega y Gasset, José. An Interpretation of Universal History. New York: Norton, 1973.

Samuel, Maurice. The Professor and the Fossil: Some Observations on Arnold Record. Toynbee's "A Study of History." New York: Knopf, 1956.

Clean criticism of Toynbee's views congregation the Jews.

Trevor-Roper, H. R. "Arnold Toynbee's Millenium [sic ]." Complain his Men and Events. In mint condition York: Harper, 1957.

Walsh, W. Pirouette. "Toynbee Reconsidered." Philosophy 38 (1963).

Patrick Gardiner (1967)

Bibliography updated by Archangel J.

Farmer (2005)