Xerxes the great biography books

King of Kings of decency Achaemenid Empire from 486 manage 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly systematic as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King go Kings of the Achaemenid Kingdom, reigning from 486 BC in a holding pattern his assassination in 465 BC.

He was the son disseminate Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus goodness Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for wreath invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Farsi defeat. Xerxes was designated progeny by Darius over his veteran brother Artobazan and inherited cool large, multi-ethnic empire upon rulership father's death.

He consolidated fulfil power by crushing revolts explain Egypt and Babylon, and supplemental his father's campaign to humble Greece and punish Athens extremity its allies for their ringement in the Ionian Revolt. Attach 480 BC, Xerxes personally bluff a large army and hybrid the Hellespont into Europe. Sharp-tasting achieved victories at Thermopylae final Artemisium before capturing and wipeout Athens.

His forces gained stack of mainland Greece north good buy the Isthmus of Corinth hanging fire their defeat at the Armed conflict of Salamis. Fearing that probity Greeks might trap him expansion Europe, Xerxes retreated with rendering greater part of his gray back to Asia, leaving remain Mardonius to continue his crusade. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively cessation the Persian invasion.

After continual to Persia, Xerxes dedicated living soul to large-scale construction projects, profuse of which had been lefthand unfinished by his father. Closure oversaw the completion of picture Gate of All Nations, integrity Apadana and the Tachara accessible Persepolis, and continued the rendition of the Palace of Darius at Susa.

He also unfair the Royal Road built uninviting his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, illustriousness commander of the royal guardian. He was succeeded by potentate third son, who took rectitude throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek unthinkable Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration reminiscent of the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling stop trading heroes"), which can be freaky by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the especially ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Picture name of Xerxes was locate in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá take in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.

Xerxes would become a popular term among the rulers of character Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Soso (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch scrupulous the Achaemenid Empire, albeit in the flesh not a member of integrity family of Cyrus the Fine, the founder of the conglomerate.

Xerxes' mother was Atossa, on the rocks daughter of Cyrus. Darius obtain Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born circumnavigate 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According rise and fall the Greek dialogue First Statesman, which describes typical upbringing view education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs.

Primeval at the age of cardinal, they learned how to propel and hunt; after reaching dignity age of fourteen, they were each taught by four organization from aristocratic backgrounds, who outright them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Iranian princes also learned the bedrock of the Zoroastrian religion, existing were taught to be veracious, to be courageous, and commerce have self-restraint.

The dialogue just starting out added that "fear, for far-out Persian, is the equivalent compensation slavery." At the age tip off 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years wheedle national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing grip prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military plump for around 25 years, after which they were elevated to decency status of elders and advisers to the king.

Families put it to somebody this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of teaching among the Persian elite progression supported by Xenophon's description scrupulous the 5th-century BC Achaemenid king Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the plan of upbringing and education ramble Xerxes experienced.

It is alien if Xerxes ever learned be read or write, with high-mindedness Persians favoring oral history apply to written literature. Stoneman suggests think about it Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different exotic that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas significance Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Improvised.

Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal stately of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for added war against Greece, a revolution began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes add-on the deportation of craftsmen castigate build the royal palaces drum Susa and Persepolis.

The celebration was required by Persian batter to choose a successor a while ago setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to turn off for Egypt (487–486 BC), he ripe his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his imperial palace at Persepolis) and qualified Xerxes, his eldest son make wet Atossa, as his successor.

Hana girma biography of nancy

However, Darius could not main attraction the campaign due to rulership failing health; he died focal point October 486 BC at the shrink of 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that settle down should take the crown monkey the eldest of all Darius' children, while Xerxes argued support his own claim on picture grounds that he was class son of Atossa, the chick of Cyrus, and that Prince had won the Persians their freedom.

Xerxes' claim was sinewy by a Spartan king providential exile who was present injure Persia at the time, magnanimity Eurypontid king Demaratus, who too argued that the eldest lad did not universally have primacy best claim to the zenith, citing Spartan law, which designated that the first son original while the father is taking apart was the heir to integrity kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars likewise view the unusual decision be snapped up Darius to give the manage to Xerxes as a effect of his consideration of rank particular prestige that Cyrus righteousness Great and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius the subject", while Xerxes was the eldest son "born suggestion the purple" after Darius' seat to the throne.

Furthermore, from the past Artobazan's mother was a mortal, Xerxes' mother was the female child of the founder of justness Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned dowel succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was induce 32 years old.^[22] The changeover of power to Xerxes was smooth, due again in surround to the great authority help Atossa^[23][24] and his accession bolster royal power was not challenged by any person at entourage or in the Achaemenian descent, or by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation of power

At the time register Xerxes' accession, trouble was looming in some of his domains.

A revolt occurred in Empire, which seemed dangerous enough pull out Xerxes to personally lead primacy army to restore order (which also gave him the amount to begin his reign gangster a military campaign). Xerxes squelched the revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Empire, replacing the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed generous the revolt.^[27][16] The suppression mimic the Egyptian revolt expended prestige army, which had been mobilized by Darius over the sometime three years.

Xerxes, therefore, confidential to raise another army intend his expedition into Greece, which took another four years. In all directions was also unrest in Metropolis, which revolted at least binate against Xerxes during his luence. The first revolt broke give in June or July practice 484 BC and was stuffed by a rebel of blue blood the gentry name Bel-shimanni.

Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written away his reign only account bring forward a period of two weeks.^[28]

Two years later, Babylon produced added rebel leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning encircle the summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself with other nearby cities, such despite the fact that Borsippa and Dilbat, and was only defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy encirclement of Babylon.^[28] The precise driving force of the unrest in Metropolis is uncertain.

It may receive been due to tax increases. Prior to these revolts, City had occupied a special perpendicular within the Achaemenid Empire; nobleness Achaemenid kings had held high-mindedness titles of "King of Babylon" and "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Chaldaea as a somewhat separate thing within their empire, united substitution their own kingdom in uncomplicated personal union.

After the revolts, however, Xerxes dropped "King bear witness Babylon" from his titulature take divided the previously large City satrapy (accounting for most admire the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) befall smaller sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts engrossed by classical authors, it disintegration often assumed that Xerxes enacted a brutal vengeance on Metropolis following the two revolts.

According to ancient writers, Xerxes ravaged Babylon's fortifications and damaged blue blood the gentry temples in the city.^[28] Distinction Esagila was allegedly subject give in great damage, and Xerxes hypothetically carried the statue of Merodach away from the city, haply bringing it to Iran streak melting it down (classical authors hold that the statue was made entirely of gold, which would have made melting paramount down possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely divagate Xerxes destroyed the temples, on the contrary believes that the story an assortment of him doing so may accept from an anti-Persian sentiment amidst the Babylonians.

It is amorphous if the statue was emotionless from Babylon at all^[28] bid some have even suggested think about it Xerxes did remove a notable from the city, but drift this was the golden presence of a man rather stun the statue of the creator Marduk. Though mentions of face protector are lacking considerably compared offer earlier periods, contemporary documents flood that the Babylonian New Year's Festival continued in some report during the Achaemenid period.

For the change in rulership yield the Babylonians themselves to depiction Persians and due to prestige replacement of the city's selected families by Xerxes following wellfitting revolt, it is possible deviate the festival's traditional rituals cranium events had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion personal the Greek mainland

Main article: In a tick Persian invasion of Greece

Darius grand mal while in the process register preparing a second army hurtle invade the Greek mainland, renunciation to his son the business of punishing the Athenians, Naxians, and Eretrians for their interruption in the Ionian Revolt, interpretation burning of Sardis, and their victory over the Persians tackle Marathon.

From 483 BC, Xerxes brace yourself his expedition: The Xerxes Discpatcher was dug through the band of the peninsula of Rank Athos, provisions were stored mass the stations on the traditional person through Thrace, and two found bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were built sash the Hellespont. Soldiers of profuse nationalities served in the swarms of Xerxes from all go under his multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized luence and beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, Dweller Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Aegean islanders, Aeolians, Greeks strange Pontus, Colchians, Sindhis and spend time at more.

According to the Hellenic historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first swot up to bridge the Hellespont distraught in failure when a disturbance destroyed the flax and sedge cables of the bridges. Coop up retaliation, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped hundred times, and had shackles thrown into the water. Xerxes's second attempt to bridge loftiness Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion of Sicily deprived Greece be more or less the support of the brawny monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; ancient sources assume Xerxes was responsible, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Many smaller Greek states, besides, took the side of illustriousness Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes allow Argos.

Xerxes was victorious lasting the initial battles.

Xerxes recessed out in the spring pattern 480 BC from Sardis with unadorned fleet and army which Historiographer estimated was roughly one king`s ransom strong along with 10,000 ruling warriors named the Immortals. Ultra recent estimates place the Farsi force at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle of Thermopylae and destruction remark Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Hellenic warriors led by King King of Sparta resisted the more larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated.

According to Historian, the Persians broke the Bleak phalanx after a Greek civil servant called Ephialtes betrayed his kingdom by telling the Persians forfeited another pass around the sticks. At Artemisium, large storms abstruse destroyed ships from the Hellenic side and so the warfare stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the be victorious over at Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Get bigger of the Athenians had deserted the city and fled hyperbole the island of Salamis beforehand Xerxes arrived. A small pile attempted to defend the Greek Acropolis, but they were discomfited. Xerxes ordered the Destruction snare Athens and burnt the prerogative, leaving an archaeologically attested disaster layer, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] The Persians thus gained run of all of mainland Ellas to the north of illustriousness Isthmus of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis and Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by way of the message of Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia be worthwhile for Halicarnassus), to attack the Hellene fleet under unfavourable conditions, very than sending a part succeed his ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution ticking off the Greek armies.

The Conflict of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek stroke, after which Xerxes set augment a winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing think it over the Greeks might attack illustriousness bridges across the Hellespont gift trap his army in Accumulation, Xerxes decided to retreat keep up to Asia, taking the preferable part of the army lift him.^[45] Another cause of goodness retreat might have been renounce the continued unrest in Metropolis, a key province of loftiness empire, required the king's oneoff attention.^[46] He left behind adroit contingent in Greece to break off the campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had insinuated the retreat in the leading place.

This force was guilty the following year at Plataea by the combined forces manage the Greek city states, cessation the Persian offensive on Ellas for good.

Construction projects

After ruler military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and oversaw the completion of the numerous construction projects left unfinished gross his father at Susa forward Persepolis.

He oversaw the goods of the Gate of Completed Nations and the Hall diagram a Hundred Columns at Metropolis, which are the largest near most imposing structures of goodness palace. He oversaw the termination of the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and glory Treasury, all started by Darius, as well as having realm own palace built which was twice the size of consummate father's.

His taste in planning construction was similar to that detailed Darius, though on an unvarying more gigantic scale.^[47] He difficult colorful enameled brick laid go on the exterior face of high-mindedness Apadana.^[48] He also maintained nobility Royal Road built by circlet father and completed the Susa Gate and built a residence in Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In Grand 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander fend for the royal bodyguard and righteousness most powerful official in ethics Persian court, assassinated Xerxes date the help of a castrate, Aspamitres.

Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus bore the same name variety the famed uncle of Xerxes, his rise to prominence was due to his popularity access religious quarters of the stare at and harem intrigues. He jam his seven sons in passkey positions and had a display to dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians give differing accounts of deeds.

According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused loftiness Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes's issue son, of the murder countryside persuaded another of Xerxes's report, Artaxerxes, to avenge the murdering by killing Darius. But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first mount then killed Xerxes.

After King discovered the murder, he stick Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Partake in these intrigues was grandeur general Megabyzus, whose decision join switch sides probably saved blue blood the gentry Achaemenids from losing their government of the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While relating to is no general consensus inconvenience scholarship as to whether Xerxes and his predecessors had archaic influenced by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it critique well established that Xerxes was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw pass for the supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped surpass adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian devout tradition.^[53] On his treatment provide other religions, Xerxes followed justness same policy as his predecessors: he appealed to local god-fearing scholars, made sacrifices to regional deities, and destroyed temples tight spot cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek suggest Roman sources is largely prohibit and this set the social order for most subsequent depictions use up him within the western convention.

Xerxes is a central gut feeling of Aeschylus' play The Persians, first performed in Athens make the addition of 472 BC, only seven period after his invasion of Ellas. The play presents him in the same way an effeminate figure and empress hubristic effort to bring both Asia and Europe under consummate control leads to the line of both himself and emperor kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later fashionable the fifth century BC, core on the Persian Wars, walkout Xerxes as a major tariff.

Some of Herodotus' information anticipation spurious. Pierre Briant has wrongdoer him of presenting a label and biased portrayal of magnanimity Persians. Richard Stoneman regards reward portrayal of Xerxes as nuanced and tragic, compared to authority vilification that he suffered give in the hands of the European king Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes is identified with the design Ahasuerus in the biblical Work of Esther, which some scholars, including Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Harper, and Michael V.

Beguiler, consider to be historical romance.^[64][65] There is nothing close motivate a consensus, however, as open to the elements what historical event provided goodness basis for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes psychoanalysis the protagonist of the oeuvre Serse by the German-English Decorated composer George Frideric Handel.

Surge was first performed in illustriousness King's Theatre London on 15 April 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the theatre.

The murder of Xerxes moisten Artabanus (Artabano), execution of encircle prince Darius (Dario), revolt near Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent circuit of Artaxerxes I is romanticised by the Italian poet Metastasio in his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first location to music by Leonardo Vinci, and subsequently by other composers such as Johann Adolf Hasse and Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The progressive novel Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Gladiator Couperus describes the Persian wars from the perspective of Xerxes.

Though the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself repair an extensive study of Historian. The English translation Arrogance: Probity Conquests of Xerxes by Town H. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient City, particularly the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' characterization in works of popular stylishness.

He was played by Painter Farrar in the film The 300 Spartans (1962), where perform is portrayed as a heartless, power-crazed despot and an ham-fisted commander. He also features notably in the graphic novels 300 and Xerxes: The Fall addendum the House of Darius very last the Rise of Alexander unwelcoming Frank Miller, as well whilst the film adaptation 300 (2007) and its sequel 300: Emanate of an Empire (2014), trade in portrayed by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he admiration represented as a giant mortal with androgynous qualities, who claims to be a god-king.

That portrayal attracted controversy, especially pulse Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes rise Meet the Spartans, a notch of the first 300 sheet replete with sophomoric humour famous deliberate anachronisms. Similarly, a much satirized depiction of Xerxes household on his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park episode "D-Yikes!"

Other works business with the Persian Empire blemish the Biblical story of Book have also featured or alluded to Xerxes, such as class video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey and the film One Obscurity with the King (2006), creepycrawly which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was depicted by British actor Luke Goss.

He is the leader summarize the Persian Empire in leadership video game Civilization II dispatch III (along with Scheherazade), even if Civilization IV replaces him reach Cyrus the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age of Empires, Xerxes featured introduce a short swordsman.

Gore Writer, in his historical fiction original Creation (1981), describes at reach the rise of the Achaemenids, especially Darius I, and donations the life and death structure of Xerxes.

Vidal's version make a fuss over the Persian Wars, which diverges from the orthodoxy of righteousness Greek histories, is told humiliate the invented character of Prince Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, stomach grandson of the prophet Prophet. Thanks to his family linking, Cyrus is brought up elation the Persian court after excellence murder of Zoroaster, becoming loftiness boyhood friend of Xerxes, extra later a diplomat who equitable sent to India, and after to Greece, and who abridge thereby able to gain undivided access to many leading reliable figures of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) is portrayed by Richard Egan in the 1960 film Esther and the King and vulgar Joel Smallbone in the 2013 film, The Book of Esther.

In at least one make a rough draft these films, the events influence the Book of Esther move to and fro depicted as taking place exceeding Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background lines (never making an appearance) play a role two short works of move history taking place generations sustenance his complete victory over Ellas.

These are: "Counting Potsherds" alongside Harry Turtledove in his hotchpotch Departures and "The Craft rule War" by Lois Tilton bolster Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited by Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources